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User:虞海/X̲aat 語

维基百科，自由的百科全书
X̲aat 語
X̲aat Kíl
母语国家和地区加拿大 (Haida Gwaii), 美國 (Prince of Wales Island)
母语使用人数
作爲母語：40人
作爲第二語言：275人
語系
孤立语言
  • X̲aat 語
文字拉丁字母（Enrico和ANLC）
官方地位
作为官方语言Council of the Haida Nation
管理机构無
語言代碼
ISO 639-1none
ISO 639-2hai
ISO 639-3hai——囊括代码（英语：ISO 639 macrolanguage）
各项代码：
hdn – 北部方言（美加）
hax – 南部方言（加拿大）
歐洲殖民前的 X̲aat 語分佈

X̲aat 語（ANLC系統：X̲aat Kíl, X̲aadas Kíl, X̲aayda Kil）是 X̲aat 人的語言。該語言有8個元音和超過30個輔音。语言学家Edward Sapir曾在1915年把 X̲aat 語归为納－德內語系，该提议随即受到诸多语言学家（如Pinnow, Greenberg, Enrico, Ruhlen, Manaster Ramer, and Bengtson，详见参考文献列表）的支持；然而，今天大多数语言学家将 X̲aat 語看作是一个孤立语言。[1]08年语言学界提议美洲的納－德內語系和北亚（中西伯利亚）的叶尼塞语系同源并构成德內－葉尼塞語門，[2]却没有任何迹象表明 X̲aat 語属于该语门。

大约100年前，全体 X̲aat 人都使用 X̲aat 語，[3]但今天 X̲aat 語却是extremely endangered, with only about 40 native speakers,[4] nearly all of whom are older adults.[5][6] Although the number of native speakers has diminished along the years, according to a 2001 Canadian Census there are now about 275 speakers in British Columbia alone,[3] and with revived interest in the language, this figure is expected to grow.

Currently Haida citizens and friends in all three dialect communities are working to revitalizing the language. In Skidegate, fluent speakers gather on a daily basis to work on the southern or Skidegate dialect and have produced a large series of recordings. In Masset, a group of younger learners is working with their fluent elders to reintegrate the northern or Masset dialect into their daily lives. In Alaska, the community conducts regular language classes for teens and adults, and has built a website complete with online recordings of the Kaigani dialect.

History

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The Rev. John Henry Keen, a missionary, translated the Book of Common Prayer into Haida. Keen returned to England on leave in 1898 and his translated prayer book was published in 1899 in London by the Missionary Society.[7] Sadly the book went out of print as the people it was intended to be read by, were dying out. It is estimated that before the Europeans arrived there were 10,000 people who spoke Haida. By 1900 there were about 700.[8] Keen was to go on to translate the gospels of Luke and John and the Acts from the New Testament into Haida.[9]

Sounds

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輔音

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（參見书写系统一節）按北部方言Kaigani土語ANLC系統、北部方言Masset土語恩里科系統、南部方言Skidegate土語恩里科系統、IPA給出：

  Bilabiales Alvéolaires Palatales Vélaires Uvulaires Pharyngales Glottales
centrales latérales
Occlusives pleines   b b b  [b̥]   d d d  [d̥]       g g g  [g̊]   ĝ G r  [ɢ̥]    
aspirées   p p p  [pʰ]   t t t  [tʰ]       k k k  [kʰ]   ḵ q q  [qʰ]    
éjectives   p' p' p'  [p̕]   t' t' t'  [t̕]       k' k' k'  [k̕]   ḵ' q' q'  [q̕]     ' 7 7  [ʔ]
Affriquées voisées       dl dl dl  [d̥͡ɫ]   j j j  [d̥͡ʒ̊]        
sourdes     ts ts ts  [t͡s]   tl tl tl  [t͡ɬʰ]   ch ts ts  [t͡ʃ]       g̱ r –  [ʔˤ]  
éjectives     ts' ts' ts'  [t͡s̕]   tl' tl' tl'  [t͡ɬ̕]          
Fricatives sourdes     s s s  [s]   hl hl hl  [ɬ]   x c c  [ç]     x̂ X x  [χ]   x̱ x –  [ħ]   h h h  [h]
Nasales pleines   m m m  [m]   n n n  [n]       ng ng ng  [ŋ]      
glottales   'm 'm 'm  [ˀm]   'n 'n 'n  [ˀn]            
Spirantes pleines   w w w  [w]     l l l  [ɫ]   y y y  [j]        
glottales   'w 'w 'w  [ˀw]     'l 'l 'l  [ˀl]   'y 'y 'y  [ˀj]        
Bilabial Alveolar Postalveolar
/ Palatal 		Velar Uvular Epi-
glottal 		Glottal
central lateral
Plosive plain1 b̥ d̥ ɡ̊ ɢ̥ ʔ
aspirated pʰ tʰ kʰ qʰ
ejective pʼ tʼ kʼ qʼ
Contour Segment lenis d̥͡l d̥͡ʒ̊
fortis t͡s t͡ɬʰ t͡ʃ 2 ʡ͡ʜ
ejective t͡sʼ t͡ɬʼ t͡ʃʼ
Fricative voiceless s ɬ x χ ʜ 3 h
Nasal plain m n ŋ
glottalized mˀ nˀ
Approximant plain ɫ j w
glottalized lˀ
  • ^1 Inside words, the plain stops can be voiced.
  • ^2 For some speakers, [t͡ʃ] occurs only at the beginning of syllables, while [t͡s] does not occur there. They are the same phoneme. A similar situation applies with [t͡sʼ] and [t͡ʃʼ].[來源請求]
  • ^3 Instead of an epiglottal fricative, the Masset dialect uses an epiglottal trill.

Tone

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Haida features phonemic tone, the nature of which differs by dialect. In Kaigani the system is one of pitch accent, with at most one syllable per word featuring high tone; in Masset and Skidegate tone is contrastive in heavy syllables. All the above systems feature two tones: high and low.

書寫系統

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X̲aat 語有兩套基於拉丁字母的書寫系統：在加拿大常用的，约翰·恩里科（John Enrico）提出的恩里科系統，用來書寫南 X̲aat 語；在美國常用的，阿拉斯加土著語言中心（Alaska Native Language Center）提出的ANLC系統，用來書寫北 X̲aat 語。

  • ANLC系統區分兩個同位異音[t͡ʃ]（英語的ch）和[t͡s]（漢語拼音的c）。
  • 恩里科系統是一種跨方言文字（儘管只跨了兩個加拿大方言），它在不同方言中給了不同的語音影射，使得在兩种方言中發音相同的詞有著不同的寫法，而寫法相同的詞有著不同的發音。[10]

X̲aat 語的兩套書寫系統部分與漢語拼音類似：字母B、D、G表示不吐氣的清音，而非濁音。

此外還有一個不常用的系統，由John R. Swanton給出。[10]它更像是基於语音的，而不像是基於音位的。

References

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  1. ^ Schoonmaker, Peter K.; Bettina Von Hagen, Edward C. Wolf. The Rain Forests of Home: Profile Of A North American Bioregion. Island Press. 1997: 257. ISBN 1559634804. 
  2. ^ Dene-Yeniseic Symposium
  3. ^ 3.0 3.1 UBC World Language Fair’s HAIDA webpage. [2008-05-23]. 
  4. ^ Alaska Native Language Population and Speaker Statistics. 1 January 1999 [2008-03-17]. 
  5. ^ Ethnologue report for language code:hdn. [2008-03-17]. 
  6. ^ Haida Language Mainpage. [2008-05-23]. 
  7. ^ Beolens, Bo; et al. The Eponym Dictionary of Mammals p.220. JHU Press. 2009: 574. 
  8. ^ The Book of Common Prayer in Haida, Society for Promoting Christian Knowledge, London, 1899, accessed 16 November 2010
  9. ^ Hatch, Melville H. A Biographical Memoir of Rev. Keen. The Coleopterists Bulletin. 1957, XI: 62–64 [24 November 2010].  已忽略未知参数|month=（建议使用|date=） (帮助)
  10. ^ 10.0 10.1 Ways of Writing Haida

Publications describing Haida language structure or classification

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  1. Bengtson, John D. (2008), “Materials for a Comparative Grammar of the Dene-Caucasian (Sino-Caucasian) Languages.” Aspects of Comparative Linguistics, vol. 3, Moscow: RSUH Publishers, pp. 45–118
  2. Dürr, Michael & Egon Renner. 1995. The history of the Na-Dene controversy: A sketch. Language and Culture in North America: Studies in Honor of Heinz-Jürgen Pinnow, ed. by Egon Renner & Michael Dürr, 3-18. (Lincom Studies in Native American Linguistics 2). Munich: Lincom Europa.
  3. Enrico, John. 1983a. "The Haida language." The outer shores, edited by G. E. Scudder and Nicholas Gessler. Queen Charlotte City, B.C.: Queen Charlotte Islands Museum Press. pp. 223–248.
  4. Enrico, John. 1983b. "Tense in the Haida relative clause." International journal of American linguistics 52:91-123.
  5. Enrico, John. 1986. "Word order, focus and topic in Haida." International journal of American linguistics 49:136-166.
  6. Enrico, John. 1991. The lexical phonology of Masset Haida. (Alaska Native Language Center research papers, 8.) Fairbanks: Alaska Native Language Center.
  7. Enrico, John. 1998. "Remarks on pitch in Skidegate Haida." Gengo Kenkyu 12:115-120.
  8. Enrico, John. 2003. Haida syntax. (2 volumes). Lincoln, NE: University of Nebraska Press.
  9. Enrico, John. 2004. Toward Proto – Na-Dene. Anthropological Linguistics 46(3).229 – 302.
  10. Enrico, John. 2005. Haida dictionary: Skidegate, Masset, and Alaskan Dialects. (2 volumes). Fairbanks: Alaska Native Language Center; Juneau: Sealaska Heritage Institute.
  11. Greenberg, J.H. 1987a. Language in the Americas. Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press.
  12. Greenberg, J.H. 1987b. “The Na-Dene Problem.” In Greenberg (1987a), pp. 321–330.
  13. Lawrence, Erma. 1977. Haida dictionary. Fairbanks: Alaska Native Language Center.
  14. Levine, Robert D. 1979. Haida and Na-Dene: A new look at the evidence. International Journal of American Linguistics 45(2).157 – 70.
  15. Manaster Ramer, Alexis. 1996. "Sapir's classifications: Haida and the other Na Dene languages." Anthropological linguistics 38:179-215.
  16. Pinnow, Heinz-Jürgen. 1976. Geschichte der Na-Dene-Forschung. (Indiana : Beihefte ; 5). Berlin: Mann. ISBN 3-7861-3027-2
  17. Pinnow. H-J. 1985. Das Haida als Na-Dene Sprache. (Abhandlungen der völkerkundlichen Arbeitsgemeinschaft, Hefte 43-46.) Nortorf, Germany: Völkerkundliche Arbeitsgemeinschaft.
  18. Pinnow. H-J. 2006a. Die Na-Dene-Sprachen im Lichte der Greenberg-Klassifikation. / The Na-Déné Languages in Light of Greenberg's Classification. Zweite erweiterte Auflage / Second revised edition. Bredstedt: Druckerei Lempfert.
  19. Pinnow. H-J. 2006b. Sprachhistorische Untersuchung zur Stellung des Haida als Na-Dene-Sprache. (Unveränderte Neuausgabe aus INDIANA 10, Gedenkschrift Gerdt Kutscher. Teil 2. Berlin 1985. Mit einem Anhang = Die Na-Dene-Sprachen im Verhältnis zum Tibeto-Chinesischen.) Bredstedt: Druckerei Lempfert.
  20. Ruhlen M. 1998. "The Origin of the Na-Dene". Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America. 95, no. 23: 13994-6.
  21. Sapir, Edward. 1915. The Na-Dene languages: A preliminary report. American Anthropologist 17.534 – 558.
  22. Swanton, John R. 1905. Haida texts and myths. Skidegate dialect. (Bureau of American Ethnology bulletin 29.) Washington, D.C.: Smithsonian Institution.
  23. Swanton, John R. 1908. Haida texts. Masset dialect. (Memoirs of the American Museum of Natural History, vol. 10, part 2.) Leiden: E. J. Brill.
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